Research

Working Papers

Coercive Assimilation Policy Across Generations: Evidence from American Indian Boarding Schools (Paper)

Abstract

Culture and identity have fundamental economic, social, and political implications. Throughout history, governments, colonial powers, and other state actors have sought to reshape these characteristics through assimilation policies and indoctrination efforts, often targeting ethnic minorities. In this paper, I show that coercive assimilation policy can cause substantial cultural change among ethnic minorities, but that these effects do not necessarily persist into later generations, and may even reverse. I focus on a historical policy in the United States under which authorities removed Native American children to distant boarding schools. I exploit the staggered recruitment patterns of schools and variation in cohort exposure to facilitate causal identification. I show that exposure to boarding schools offered few economic benefits, but did lead to substantial cultural and social assimilation. Treated cohorts were more likely to speak English, more likely to give their children western names, and more likely to be perceived as `White’ in their communities. However, I find that the next generation tended to be less socially and economically integrated. I show that tribe- and family-level characteristics affected the trajectory of intergenerational outcomes, which, in line with the historical literature, points to resistance to the schools on the part of Native American individuals and communities.

Ideology in Government: Evidence from the Office of Indian Affairs and the Assimilation Era (with Eric Chyn and Kareem Haggag)

Abstract

This paper studies the ideology of government officials by examining the Indian Affairs office and systematically exploring the detailed writings and reports of bureaucrats charged with administering federal policy. The Office of Indian Affairs offers a powerful lens through which to study state ideology, given its long-standing authority over land, education, and legal governance of Native populations in the U.S. We digitize the agency’s archival records and use computational tools to conduct large-scale analysis on the strength of support for the organization’s assimilationist policies and goals among members of its workforce during the 19th and early 20th centuries. We document major shifts in ideological commitments that coincide with the entry—and eventual exit—of social reformers nominated for high-level agency positions by religious organizations. We find that ideology within the bureaucracy appears to moderate around the turn of the century despite the organization’s overall continued pursuit of major assimilation policies and goals, such as the promotion of farming and enrollment at off-reservation Indian boarding schools. To examine performance implications of ideology within the bureaucracy, we conclude with an analysis of land allotment policy after the passage of the Dawes Act. We provide evidence showing that the agencies with local staff who express greater past commitment to assimilationist goals carried out more land allotment immediately after Dawes became law.

Work in Progress

Special Inquiries Relating to Indians: New Crosswalks and Data on American Indians in Historical Censuses

The Discovery of the American Tramp: Labels, Attitudes, and Outcomes of the Poor in 19th Century America (with Alba Miñano-Mañero)

Constitutions, Culture, and Identity: Evidence from American Indian Nations (with Sara Benetti and Carla Srebot)